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A unified treatment of conditionals based on epistemological principles rather than the semantical principles in vogue over recent decades.This book by distinguished philosopher Nicholas Rescher seeks to clarify the idea of what a conditional says by elucidating the information that is normally transmitted by its utterance. The result is a unified treatment of conditionals based on epistemological principles rather than the semantical principles in vogue over recent decades. This approach, argues Rescher, makes it easier to understand how conditionals actually function in our thought and discourse. In its concern with what language theorists call pragmatics―the study of the norms and principles governing our use of language in conveying information― Conditionals steps beyond the limits of logic as traditionally understood and moves into the realm claimed by theorists of artificial intelligence as they try to simulate our actual information-processing practices. The book's treatment of counterfactuals essentially revives an epistemological approach proposed by F. P. Ramsey in the 1920s and developed by Rescher himself in the 1960s but since overshadowed by the now-dominant possible-worlds approach. Rescher argues that the increasingly evident liabilities of the possible-worlds strategy make a reappraisal of the older style of analysis both timely and desirable. As the book makes clear, an epistemological approach demonstrates that counterfactual reasoning, unlike inductive inference, is not a matter of abstract reasoning alone but one of good judgment and common sense.

Conditional reasoning is reasoning that involves statements of the sort If A (Antecedent) then C (Consequent). This type of reasoning is ubiquitous; everyone engages in it. Indeed, the ability to do so may be considered a defining human characteristic. Without this ability, human cognition would be greatly impoverished. "What-if" thinking could not occur. There would be no retrospective efforts to understand history by imagining how it could have taken a different course. Decisions that take possible contingencies into account could not be made; there could be no attempts to influence the future by selecting actions on the basis of their expected effects. Despite the commonness and importance of conditional reasoning and the considerable attention it has received from scholars, it remains the subject of much continuing debate. Unsettled questions, both normative and empirical, continue to be asked. What constitutes normative conditional reasoning? How do people engage in it? Does what people do match what would be expected of a rational agent with the abilities and limitations of human beings? If not, how does it deviate and how might people's ability to engage in it be improved?This book reviews the work of prominent psychologists and philosophers on conditional reasoning. It describes empirical research on how people deal with conditional arguments and on how conditional statements are used and interpreted in everyday communication. It examines philosophical and theoretical treatments of the mental processes that support conditional reasoning. Its extensive coverage of the subject makes it an ideal resource for students, teachers, and researchers with a focus on cognition across disciplines.

This reference and text offers a thorough analysis of conditional expectations and probability measures, and demonstrates their important uses in real situations. Coverage includes applications to sufficiency, Markov processes, Martingales and analysis problems.;Presenting different characterizations of conditional operators and meausures to illuminate the abstract and functional analytic nature of conditioning, this volume: reviews the general concept of conditioning; supplies Kolmogorov's formulation and its properties; provides an axiomatic method for simplifying problems as an abstraction of Kolmogorov's general formulation; explicates sufficient statistics; and illustrates difficulties in the calculation of conditional expectations for continuous multivariate distributions and provides methods for correct solutions in many cases.;This work is designed as a reference for pure and applied mathematicians, probabilists, statisticians, information theorists, physicists and communication and industrial engineers; as well as a text for graduate level students in these discipines.

“Conditional Design” is the name of a new design ethos formulated by graphic designers Luna Maurer, Jonathan Puckey and Roel Wouters, and artist Edo Paulus. It espouses a working method that involves drawing up arbitrary constraints and rules of play, fostering both a strongly collaborative spirit and unpredictable end results. Conditional Design provides beautifully simple ideas for open, collaborative processes in art and design. Its workbook format organizes the material step by step, and the publication as a whole provides exciting ways for others--groups of children as well as artists and designers--to apply the method themselves. In accompanying essays, Andrew Blauvelt elaborates on the implications of such processes for art and design, and Koert van Mensvoort describes how Conditional Design could form the basis for the design and organization of the city of Zhiango, China, in 2050.

This reference and text offers a thorough analysis of conditional expectations and probability measures, and demonstrates their important uses in real situations. Coverage includes applications to sufficiency, Markov processes, Martingales and analysis problems.;Presenting different characterizations of conditional operators and meausures to illuminate the abstract and functional analytic nature of conditioning, this volume: reviews the general concept of conditioning; supplies Kolmogorov's formulation and its properties; provides an axiomatic method for simplifying problems as an abstraction of Kolmogorov's general formulation; explicates sufficient statistics; and illustrates difficulties in the calculation of conditional expectations for continuous multivariate distributions and provides methods for correct solutions in many cases.;This work is designed as a reference for pure and applied mathematicians, probabilists, statisticians, information theorists, physicists and communication and industrial engineers; as well as a text for graduate level students in these discipines.

This book is an extremely detailed and comprehensive examination of conditional sentences in English, using many examples from actual language-use. The syntax and semantics of conditionals (including tense and mood options) and the functions of conditionals in discourse are examined in depth, producing an all-round linguistic view of the subject which contains a wealth of original observations and analyses. Not only linguists specializing in grammar but also those interested in pragmatics and the philosophy of language will find this book a rewarding and illuminating source.

This book is an extremely detailed and comprehensive examination of conditional sentences in English, using many examples from actual language-use. The syntax and semantics of conditionals (including tense and mood options) and the functions of conditionals in discourse are examined in depth, producing an all-round linguistic view of the subject which contains a wealth of original observations and analyses. Not only linguists specializing in grammar but also those interested in pragmatics and the philosophy of language will find this book a rewarding and illuminating source.

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Conditionals pervade our language. Words like "if" and "even if" are used to convey complex messages and this book elaborates and defends a theory of conditionals to take into account recent and influential philosophical work. The book takes as its starting point the fact that the principle purpose of conversation, writing and reading is to transfer information and to effect modifications in the systems of beliefs of hearers and readers. Understanding this process can lead to a simple and satisfying theory of indicative conditionals, which the author distinguishes from subjunctive conditionals. He examines both types of conditionals, together with disjunction, explaining our intuitions about when to use conditionals and the validity of arguments involving them. Recent research on the probabilities of conditionals plays a prominent role in the argument.

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Conditional reasoning is reasoning that involves statements of the sort If A (Antecedent) then C (Consequent). This type of reasoning is ubiquitous; everyone engages in it. Indeed, the ability to do so may be considered a defining human characteristic. Without this ability, human cognition would be greatly impoverished. "What-if" thinking could not occur. There would be no retrospective efforts to understand history by imagining how it could have taken a different course. Decisions that take possible contingencies into account could not be made; there could be no attempts to influence the future by selecting actions on the basis of their expected effects. Despite the commonness and importance of conditional reasoning and the considerable attention it has received from scholars, it remains the subject of much continuing debate. Unsettled questions, both normative and empirical, continue to be asked. What constitutes normative conditional reasoning? How do people engage in it? Does what people do match what would be expected of a rational agent with the abilities and limitations of human beings? If not, how does it deviate and how might people's ability to engage in it be improved?This book reviews the work of prominent psychologists and philosophers on conditional reasoning. It describes empirical research on how people deal with conditional arguments and on how conditional statements are used and interpreted in everyday communication. It examines philosophical and theoretical treatments of the mental processes that support conditional reasoning. Its extensive coverage of the subject makes it an ideal resource for students, teachers, and researchers with a focus on cognition across disciplines.

On Conditionals provides the first major cross-disciplinary account of conditional (if-then) constructions. Conditional sentences directly reflect the language user's ability to reason about alternatives, uncertainties, and unrealised contingencies. An understanding of the conceptual and behavioural organisation involved in the construction and interpretation of these kinds of sentences therefore provides fundamental insights into the inferential strategies and the cognitive and linguistic processes of human beings. The present volume brings together studies from several perspectives - philosophical, linguistic and psychological - and aims to emphasise the intrinsic connections between the issues to be addressed and to point to new directions for interdisciplinary work.

A proposal for a compositional semantics for subjunctive (or would) conditionals in English.In this book, Michela Ippolito proposes a compositional semantics for subjunctive (or would) conditionals in English that accounts for their felicity conditions and the constraints on the satisfaction of their presuppositions by capitalizing on the occurrence of past tense morphology in both antecedent and consequent clauses. Very little of the extensive literature on subjunctive conditionals tries to account for the meaning of these sentences compositionally or to relate this meaning to their linguistic form; this book fills that gap, connecting the different lines of research on conditionals. Ippolito's proposal will be of interest both to linguists and to philosophers concerned with conditionals and modality more generally.Ippolito reviews previous analyses of counterfactuals and subjunctive conditionals in the work of David Lewis, Robert Stalnaker, Angelika Kratzer, and others; considers the contrast between future simple past subjunctive conditionals and future past perfect subjunctive conditionals; presents a proposal for subjunctive conditionals that addresses puzzles left unsolved by previous proposals; reviews a number of presupposition triggers showing that they fit the pattern predicted by her proposal; and discusses an asymmetry between the past and the future among subjunctive conditionals, arguing that the best account of our linguistic intuitions must include an indeterministic view of the world.

This book seeks to bring together the pragmatic theory of 'meaning as use' with the traditional semantic approach that considers meaning in terms of truth conditions. Daniel Gutzmann adopts core ideas by the philosopher David Kaplan in assuming that the meaning of expressions such as oops or damn can be captured by giving the conditions under which they can be felicitously used. He develops a multidimensional approach to meaning, called hybrid semantics, that incorporates use conditions alongside truth conditions in a unified framework. This new system overcomes the empirical gaps and conceptual problems associated with previous multidimensional systems; it also lessens the burden on the compositional system by shifting restrictions on the combination of use-conditional expressions to the lexicon-semantics interface instead of building them directly into the combinatoric rules. The approach outlined in this book can capture the entire meaning of complex expressions, and also has natural applications in the analysis of sentence mood and modal particles in German, as Gutzmann's two detailed case studies demonstrate. The book will be a valuable resource for linguists working in the fields of semantics, pragmatics, and philosophy of language, as well as to philosophers and cognitive scientists with an interest in meaning in language.

Francois Recanati argues against the traditional understanding of the semantics/pragmatics divide and puts forward a radical alternative. Through half a dozen case studies, he shows that what an utterance says cannot be neatly separated from what the speaker means. In particular, the speaker's meaning endows words with senses that are tailored to the situation of utterance and depart from the conventional meanings carried by the words in isolation. This phenomenon of 'pragmatic modulation' must be taken into account in theorizing about semantic content, for it interacts with the grammar-driven process of semantic composition. Because of that interaction, Recanati argues, the content of a sentence always depends upon the context in which it is used. This claim defines Contextualism, a view which has attracted considerable attention in recent years, and of which Recanati is one of the main proponents.

A comprehensive study of one of the most significant and prolific American postwar artists. Frequently associated with California Light and Space Art, Robert Irwin (b. 1928) began as an abstract painter in the 1950s.  Since that time, he has worked in architectural and outdoor interventions, developing and expanding what he terms a “conditional” art practice.  He employs a wide range of media, such as scrim veils, chain link fencing, Cor-ten walls, flowering plants, palm trees, fluorescent light bulbs, and more.  Ultimately, Irwin’s medium is none of these specific materials, but rather perception itself – its forms, limits, and possibilities for expansion and change.  In the artist’s own words, the aim of his work is to change “the whole visual structure of how you look at the world.”   This handsome, richly illustrated volume is the first book devoted to an in-depth investigation of the entirety of Irwin’s career, tracing the development of Irwin’s ambitions from his earliest canvases to his most recent light installations. Drawing on a wealth of primary sources, including the artist’s library and his published and unpublished writings, Matthew Simms surveys the full scope of Irwin’s creative output, the reception of his work, and its multiple aesthetic and historical contexts. In the resulting thorough yet accessible account, essential for scholars of post-war American art, conditional art emerges as a continual source of renewed aesthetic perception.

This fully-documented, 801-page volume will take the reader from the origin of eternal security or once saved, always saved (OSAS) to the present time, as the contemporary OSAS teachers of our day are quoted hundreds of times and their teachings are examined under the light of God's truth. If you are like many, among other things, you will be shocked to learn that the teaching of OSAS is sometimes equated to grace and the gospel! Furthermore, the chapters exposing Calvin's dark side and unmasking the Synod of Dort (1618-1619), will give a factual, historical account that seems to be little known in our day. But most importantly, hundreds of Scriptures are cited in both offensive and defensive ways that will substantiate The Believer's Conditional Security.

This book contains updated and substantially revised versions of Angelika Kratzer's classic papers on modals and conditionals, including "What 'must' and 'can' must and can mean," "Partition and Revision," "The Notional Category of Modality," "Conditionals," "An Investigation of the Lumps of Thought," and "Facts: Particulars or Information Units? " The book's contents add up to some of the most important work on modals and conditionals in particular and on the semantics-syntax interface more generally. It will be of central interest to linguists and philosophers of language of all theoretical persuasions.

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